A Simplified Overview of Various Methods of Language Teaching

A Simplified Overview of Various Methods of Language Teaching

Abstract

This article mainly presents the historical background, principles and techniques of different methods of language teaching. Various methods of language teaching have always been invented and implemented through decades, some of them still exist and some of them were dead in the past. Methods were usually invented to teach people foreign languages in order to study foreign literature. That trend has already changed and now people create methods to teach languages with a view to communicating with others.

Introduction

Anthony, E. (1963) defines Method as an overall plan for the orderly presentation of language material, no part of which contradicts, and all of which is based on, the selected approach. The language teaching methods which were actually invented in the 17^th, 18^th and 19^th century in the Western world with some special purposes such as to promote the Latin and Greek speakers’ intellectually, and to make the learners able to study foreign literature (Thanasoulas, D. 2002). The major change came in language teaching in twentieth century when the purpose of language teaching diverted from reading to speaking. In twentieth century, language discovered as a profession (Richards, J. C. & Rodgers, T. S. 2001)

In this article, Grammar-Translation, Direct, Audio-lingual and Community Language Learning methods will be discussed in terms of background, principles and techniques.

Grammar-Translation Method

Ossa, M. P. defines Grammar-Translation method as a way of learning second language which is based on translating, reading and writing. A very prominent method in the 17^th century was Classical method which in the late 19^th century came to known as Grammar-Translation method. According to Plotz, K. (1819-1881), GTM is one the most primitive teaching method of language teaching. GTM was in fact very popularly known in America as Prussian Method (Kelly, 1969). GTM was based on teaching grammatical rules, memorization vocabulary, and translation of texts. GTM was used in Western community to translate literary texts of non-Latin languages.

·         Principles of GTM:

Grammar-Translation method consists of some principles which serve as the purposes of

this method. Principles are written below:

1.      The main purpose of GTM is to enable the learners to study foreign literature by translating sentences with grammatical accuracy.

2.      Students have to be able to translate each sentence to claim as a successful learner.

3.      The primary skills are focused reading and writing in GTM.

4.      The teacher is the authority in the classroom and he has to give the correct answers to the students.

5.      Language learning provides good mental exercise.

6.      Grammar rules are taught deductively.

·         Techniques of GTM: There are some techniques to be followed by the teachers in the classroom while teaching in GTM method. Teacher instructs the students to read a passage in their native language and then, ask to translate each sentence. Teacher makes the students to write the rules of grammar and meaning of the words. Teacher complete exercises after completing a text. Teacher writes synonyms and antonyms and students take notes for memorizing. Teacher teaches grammar with example sentences to make it easier.

Direct Method

Direct method in teaching a language is directly establishing an immediate and audio-visual association between experience and expression, words and phrases, idioms and meanings, rules and performances through the teachers' body and mental skills, without any help of the learners' mother tongue. This method is very useful in teaching English. It focuses on listening and speaking. The direct method of teaching was established in the beginning of twentieth century in France and Germany. Direct method was called Natural method of learning which teaches students only in target language and keep away from practicing native language. It invented for solving the errors of Grammar-Translation methods. Direct method actually included the communicative part which teaches students to communicate apart from reading and writing.

·         Principles of Direct Method:

There are some principles should be followed by the teachers while teaching students.

      These principles are given below:

1.      Teacher should teach students in target language.

2.      Direct method aims to build a direct relation be-tween experience and language, word and idea, thought and expressions.

3.      This method intends that students learn how to communicate in the target language.

4.      This method is based on the assumption that the learner should experience the new language in the same way as his/her experienced his/her mother tongue.

5.      Teacher teaches grammar inductively.

6.      Both speech and listening comprehension are taught.

·         Techniques of Direct Method:

1.      Question answer exercise- the teacher asks questions of any type and the student answer

2.      Dictation-the teacher chooses a grade appropriate passage and reads it aloud.

3.      Reading aloud - the students take turn reading sections of a passage, play or a dialogue aloud.

4.      Student self - correction- when a student makes a mistake the teacher will offer him/her a second chance by giving a choice.

5.      Conversion practice- the students are given an op-opportunity to ask their own questions to the other students or to the teacher, because, there is a teacher-learner interaction, as

6.      well as learner-learner inter-action.

7.      Paragraph writing- the students are asked to write a passage in their own words.

Audio – lingual Method

Audio – lingual method or new key is a style of teaching used in teaching foreign languages. The audio- lingual method was prominent in the 1950s and 1960s, especially in the United States. In the period of World War II United States required linguists to set up special training program which would be emphasized on fast and easy language acquisition. The Army Specialized Training Program (ASTP) was established in 1942. That’s why; audio – lingual method is initially called Army Method. It is also known as Informant method because it was based on Leonard Bloomfield’s technique of memorization and repetition in simple foreign language patterns. Audio-lingual method is also introduced as Michigan method.

According to Longman Dictionary of Applied Linguistics (1985), ‘a method of foreign or second language teaching which (a) emphasizes the teaching of speaking and listening before

reading and writing (b) uses dialogues and drills (c) discourages use of the mother tongue in the classroom (d) often makes use of Contrastive Analysis.’

Audio – lingual method is a technique of foreign language instruction that emphasizes audio – lingual skills over reading and writing and is characterized by extensive use of pattern practice.

(www.dictionary.com).

This method is similar to Direct method but totally opposite of Grammar – translation method. It is based on behaviorist theory which demands that certain traits of living things and in this case humans could be trained through a system of reinforcement. The correct use of a trait would receive positive feedback and incorrect use of it would receive negative feedback.

Charles Fries and Robert Lado are credited with the association of behaviorist psychology and a contrastive structural analysis of the target language to produce the following principles for foreign language learning:

·         Foreign language learning is basically a process of mechanical habit formation. Good habits are formed by giving correct responses rather than by making mistakes. By memorizing dialogues and performing pattern drills the chances of producing mistakes are minimized.

·         Language skills are learned more effectively if the items to be learning in the target language are presented in spoken form before they are seen in written form.

·         Analogy provides a better foundation for language learning than analysis. Analogy involves the processes of generalization and discrimination.

·         The meanings that the words of a language have for the native speaker can be learned only in a linguistic and cultural context and not in isolation.

(Rivers, 1964)

The audio-lingual method was thus based on the oral language, which was presented in small, carefully controlled structural units and practiced through mimicry-memorization and drills or pattern practice. Errors were to be avoided at all costs, since only good habits should be reinforced.

·         Principles of Audio – lingual method:

       Johnson (1968) states that the principles of audio-lingual method are-

1.      Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbol used for oral communication.

2.      Writing and printing are graphic representations of the spoken language

3.      Language can be broken down into three major component parts: the sound system, structure and the vocabulary

4.      The only authority for correctness is actual use of native speakers

5.      One can learn to speak and understand a language only being exposed to the spoken language and by using the spoken language

6.      Language can be learned inductively far more easily than deductively

7.      Grammar should never be taught as an end in itself, but only as a means to the end of learning the language

8.      All structural material should be presented and practiced in class before the students attempt to study it at home

·         Techniques of Audio – lingual method:

1.      Dialogue memorization

2.      Backward build – up (expansion) drill

3.      Repetition drill

4.      Chain drill

5.      Single – slot substitution drill

6.      Multiple – slot substitution drill

7.      Transformation drill

8.      Question – answer drill

9.      Use of minimal pairs

10.  Complete the dialog

11.  Grammar game

Community Language Learning

Community Language Learning was developed by Charles A. Curran and his associates in Chicago 1955. Audiolingualism was rejected in the United States in the mid -1960s. Curran application of psychological counseling techniques to learning is known as Counseling – Learning. It is one of the ‘designer’ methods of language acquisition that arose in the 1970s and forms part of the Humanistic approach to language learning. Community language learning (CLL) was primarily designed for monolingual conversation classes where the teacher-counselor would be able to speak the learners' L1. It's a method that is based on English for communication and is extremely learner-focused. The founder figure of CLL was Charles Curran, an American Jesuit priest, whose work in Counseling Learning (a general learning approach based on Rogerian counseling ideas and practices) was applied to language learning. The key idea is that the students determine what is to be learned, so the teacher is a facilitator and provides support.

The  stages  of  learning  in  CLL  identified  by Charles  Curran  are  listed  by  Marshall  and  Baker  (2000)  as  follows:

1.      Students  don’t  know  the  target language  and  are  completely  dependent  on  the  teacher.

2.      With  the  aid  of  the  teacher,  students  begin  to use  the  new  language.

3.      Students  use  language  independently  and  confidently,  understand  better,  and  may even  begin  to  resist  intervention  by  the  teacher.

4.      Students  are  able  to  express  themselves  more elaborately,  although  they may  be  aware  of  gaps  in  their  knowledge.

5.      Students are able to continue  their learning  without  assistance

·         Principles of CLL:

  CLL  is  primarily  based  on  the  principles  of  teaching  English  for  communication.  To        this  end,  learners’ needs  and  feelings  are  addressed  with  due  regard  in  every  aspect  of  the  teaching  process.  It  is  obvious  that CLL  differs  from  traditional  language  teaching  methods  with  the  techniques  it  employs  to  reduce  learner’s anxiety  and  help  them produce  sense  of  security  (Koba, Ogawa  &  Wilkinson,  2000).

Some of the significant CLL principles can be outlined as follows:

1.      It is  important  to  establish  a  mutual  relationship  between  the  learner  and  the  teacher  in  order  to  create a  safe  learning  environment;  students  tend  to  learn  more  effectively  when  they  feel  secure.

2.      Language is for communication.  Therefore,  students  should  be  encouraged  to  communicate  as frequently  as  possible  during  the  lesson.

3.      The teacher  stands  behind  the  students  in  order  to  facilitate  the  learning  process.

4.      The teacher  should  respect  the  learners’  level  of  confidence  and  transmit  to  them  what  needs  to  be done  to  be  successful.

5.      Learners  need  to  know  the  limits  of  a  teaching  activity  so  that  they  feel  more  secure.

6.      As  the  teacher  and  the  learners  are  whole  persons,  they  can  share  learning  experiences,  thus  getting to  know  one  another  and  building  a  sense  of  community.

7.      Considering that  each learner  is  unique,  the teacher,  as  a  counselor,  values  the  learners  and  their  ideas; s/he  and  always  listens  to  them  without  giving  any  advice  in  order  to  understand  how  they  feel  about the  learning  process.

8.      A learner  as  a  client  uses  his  native  language  to  make  the  meaning  clear  and  to  build  a  bridge  from the  known  to  the  unknown,  since  understanding  classroom  interaction  facilitates  learning.

9.      Learners  are  required  to  attend  to  one  task  at  a  time  and  are  offered  a  quiet  reflection period  in  order to  learn.

10.  Learners  have  a  choice  in  what  they  want  to  practice,  as  they  have  an  inner  wisdom  about  where  they need  to  improve.

11.  Students  work  in  groups  to  feel  a  sense  of  community;  thus,  they  can  learn  from  each other  as  well  as the  teacher.  Cooperation, rather than competition, is encouraged.

12.  The teacher  should  correct  the  errors  that  learners  have  produced  in a  nonthreatening  way.

13.  By reading their  sentences  to  the  other  members  of  the  class,  learners  develop  a  sense  of  community and  build  trust,  which  helps  to  reduce  the  threat  of  the  new  learning  situation.

14.  When material  is  new  or  too  familiar,  learning  tends  not  to  take  place.  Retention will best take place somewhere in between novelty and familiarity.

15.  Apart  from  the  language,  learners  also  reflect  on  what  they  have  experienced.  Thus,  they  have  an opportunity  to  learn  about  the  language,  about  their  own  learning,  and  about  how  to  learn  from  one another  in  a  community.

16.  The syllabus is generated primarily by students in the beginning stages.  Students  are  more  willing  to learn  when  they  have  created the  material  themselves  (Larsen-Freeman  &  Anderson,  2011,  pp.  9193).

In  CLL,  students  learn  not  only  how  to  use  the  target  language in communication,  but  also  how  to  take responsibility  for  their  own  learning.  Such  learning  takes  place  in  a  communicative  situation  where  teachers and  learners  are  both  involved  in  an  interaction  in  which  both  experience  a  sense  of  their  own  wholeness (Curran,  1972, Richards  &  Rodgers,  2002,  p.  90).

·         Techniques of CLL:

1.      Tape recording student conversation

2.      Transcription

3.      Reflection on experience

4.      Reflective listening

5.      Human computer

6.      Small group tasks

Natural Approach

The natural approach is a method of foreign language teaching which aims to apply the principles of natural language acquisition into classroom.

According to Wikipedia, ‘NA is a method of language teaching developed by Stephen Krashen and Tracy Terrell in the late 197s and early 1980s’.

This method claims that language learning is a reproduction of the way humans naturally acquire their native language. This method sometimes refers to direct method.

NA is based on Krashen’s theories of second language acquisition. This acquisition focused on communicative competence progressing through three stages:

·         Aural comprehension

·         Early speech production

·         Speech activities

The Monitor Model of Krashen’s theories –

1.      The Acquisition – Learning Hypothesis

2.      The Monitor Hypothesis

3.      The Natural Order Hypothesis

4.      The Input Hypothesis

5.      The Affective Filter Hypothesis

Implementation of various methods in Bangladesh

Ø  GRAMMAR-TRANSLATION METHOD

Grammar-translation usually consists of an explanation of a grammatical rule, with some example sentences, a bilingual vocabulary list, a reading section exemplifying the grammatical rule and incorporating the vocabulary, and exercises to practice using the grammar and vocabulary. Most of these classes are taught in the student's first language. The grammar-translation method provides little opportunity for acquisition and relies too heavily on learning. Teachers are still following this method in teaching in Bangladesh. This method should be banned from Bangladesh because it has more disadvantages than advantages.

Ø  AUDIO-LINGUAL METHOD

An audio-lingual lesson usually begins with a dialogue which contains the grammar and vocabulary to be focused on in the lesson. The students mimic the dialogue and eventually memorize it. After the dialogue comes pattern drills, in which the grammatical structure introduced in the dialogue is reinforced, with these drills focusing on simple repetition, substitution, transformation, and translation. While the audio-lingual method provides opportunity for some acquisition to occur, it cannot measure up to newer methods which provide much more comprehensible input in a low-filter environment. In Bangladesh this method is much more applicable in small classes like class I to IV of schools. But in advanced level, this method did not work. But in learning a foreign language like Spanish, German, Russian etc., this method is applicable. When I was in 1^st year, I had learned Spanish, a foreign language, the Spanish course tutor was used this method.

Ø  THE DIRECT METHOD

Direct method involves all discussion in the target language. The teacher uses examples of language in order to inductively teach grammar; students are to try to guess the rules of the language by the examples provided. Teachers interact with the students a lot, asking them questions about relevant topics and trying to use the grammatical structure of the day in the conversation. Accuracy is sought and errors are corrected. This method provides more comprehensible input than the methods discussed so far, but it still focuses too much on grammar. This method is much appropriate in University or advanced level. I am a student of English for speakers of other languages (ESOL), teachers of my courses teach in this method.

Ø  THE NATURAL APPROACH

In the Natural Approach the teacher speaks only the target language and class time is committed to providing input for acquisition. Students may use either the language being taught or their first language. Errors in speech are not corrected; however homework may include grammar exercises that will be corrected. Goals for the class emphasize the students being able use the language "to talk about ideas, perform tasks, and solve problems." This approach aims to fulfill the requirements for learning and acquisition, and does a great job in doing it. Its main weakness is that all classroom teaching is to some degree limited in its ability to be interesting and relevant to all students. Practice is less or somehow missing in this method, not like direct method. This method is exaggeration of direct method.

Ø  COMMUNITY LANGUAGE LEARNING

The people who feel anxiety, shyness, fear in regular classroom, this is method is for them. This method is like counseling. There is no structural syllabus, students have freedom to choose or learn anything they want. This method is not suitable for advanced level. It is more suitable for language learning by your own and practice. In this method language is for communication. In this method, anyone can use both target and native language. In Bangladesh, this method is not applicable for language learning.

Conclusion

In teaching, there are several methods. Teachers have to decide which is more effective. It depends on teachers which methods have to follow and which method is not. Every methods are imperfect, every methods have lacking, so teachers have to decide in which method they can teach more appropriately. In my point of view, direct method is appropriate for all levels of education.

References

Ø  www.wikipedia.com

Ø  www.researchgate.net.com

Ø  www.onestopenglish.com

Ø  www.teachingenglish.com

Ø  www.unt.unice.fr.com

Ø  www.dictionary.com

Ø  Larsen- Freeman. (2004). Techniques and Principles in Language Teaching. Oxford University Press

Ø  Richards, J. and Rogers (2001). Approaches and Methods in Language Teaching. (2^nd Edition), Cambridge University Press